United States Army in World War II: Mediterranean Theater of Operations
Northwest Africa: Seizing the Initiative In the West
by George F. Howe
1957
... to Those Who Served
Table of Contents
Part 1: Preparations
Chapter 1: The Mediterranean Theater of War, 1940–1942
The Mediterranean as an Axis Theater—The Allied Decision to Occupy French North Africa—The President Commits the United States to Operation TORCH
Beginnings of the Allied Force—General Eisenhower’s Directive—The Objective—Political Considerations—Strategic Decisions
Chapter 3: Tactical Plans and Political Preparations
Organizing the Chain of Command of the Allied Force—Directives for Joint Action by the U.S. Army and Navy—Western Task Force Planning—Center Task Force Planning—Planning for Operations at Algiers—Political Preparations—Civil Affairs Planning
Chapter 4: Completing the Preparations
Training for the Assault—Plans for Logistical Support—Departure of the Western Task Force—Departure of the Center and Eastern Task Forces—Axis Situation in the Mediterranean on the Eve of the Attack—Finding a French Leader—The Climax of the Preparations
Part 2: The Amphibious Phase on the Atlantic Coast
Chapter 5: The French Decide to Fight
The Objective and Its Defenses—The Plan of Attack—Debarkation Begins—The Battle Opens—Completing the Seizure of Safi—Air Action at Safi—Stopping French Reinforcement From Marrakech—The Armored Force Starts Toward Casablanca
Chapter 7: Fedala to Casablanca
The Landings Begin—Clearing Cap de Fedala—The Capture of the Batterie du Pont Blondin—Other D-Day Landings at Fedala—The French Reaction Ashore—Naval Action on D-Day—Unloading at Fedala on D-Day—The Advance on 9 November—French Countermeasures in Morocco, 9–10 November—The Attack Near the Coast on 10 November—Pushing to the Southeastern Edge of Casablanca, 10 November
Chapter 8: Mehdia to Port-Lyautey
The Plan of Attack—The Enemy is Alerted—The 2nd BLT Attacks in the Center—The 1st BLT Attacks on the South Wing—The 3rd BLT’s Attack on the North Wing—Summary of D-Day—The Second Day’s Operations—The Night Attacks, 9–10 November—Closing on the Airdrome, 10 November—Taking the Kasba—The Final Phase
Chapter 9: The End of Hostilities in Morocco
Armistice—Enemy Submarines Attack—Political Conditions—The Western Task Force After the Surrender
Part 3: The Amphibious Operations in the Mediterranean
Chapter 10: The Last Preliminaries
The Convoys Elude the Enemy—Giraud’s Associates in Oran and Algiers—Giraud at Gibraltar
Chapter 11: The First Day’s Operations Against Oran
The Arrival of the Center Task Force Off Oran—The Landings at Mersa bou Zedjar—The Landings at Les Andalouses (Y Beach)—The Direct Assault on Oran Harbor (Operation RESERVIST)—Naval Air Support for the Landings—The Landings Along the Golfe d’Arzew—Combat Team 18 on D-Day—Combat Team 16 on D-Day—Task Force RED Takes Tafaraoui Airfield—The Airborne Troops of the Center Task Force—The Situation as D-Day Ends
Chapter 12: The Seizure of Oran
The French Counterattack on the Eastern Flank—French Armored Counterattack Near Tafaraoui—Misserrhin is Bypassed by the GREEN Flying Column, 9–10 November—St. Cloud is Finally Bypassed—The Approach to Oran From the East and South—The Final Attack on Oran, 10 November—Aftermath of Victory
Chapter 13: The Occupation of Algiers
The Plan of Attack—Arrival at the Beaches—The Western Landings—The Capture of Lambiridi and of Blida Airdrome—Operation TERMINAL—The Eastern Landings—Negotiations in Algiers—Hostilities Cease in Algiers
Chapter 14: The Axis Reaction and the French Decision
Axis Efforts to Gain French Cooperation—Axis Military Planning—Clark-Darlan Negotiations—The North African Agreement—French West Africa Cooperates—French Organization for Military Cooperation
Part 4: The End of Operation TORCH
Chapter 15: Taking Positions for the Drive on Tunis
Advance Into Tunisia—The Terrain of Tunisia—Allied Spearheads Engage the Enemy—Nehring Takes Command in Tunis—The First Battle at Medjez el Bab, 19–20 November—The Enemy Attempts to Extend the Bridgehead—Preparations for the First Allied Attack—Enemy Strength—Allied Plan of Attack
Chapter 16: The Attack Toward Tunis
The Two Northern Columns Attack, 25 November—The Southern Attack Begins—The Battle for Djedeïda
Chapter 17: Stalemate Before Tunis
The Axis Counterattack Begins—The Second Day—The Climax of the Counterattack, 3 December—December Decisions on Axis Strategy—The Action at Djebel el Guessa, 6 December—The Allies Fall Back to a New Line—The Plans for the Final Attack—The Engagement at Longstop Hill
Part 5: Concentration of Forces in Tunisia
Chapter 18: The New Situation: Allied Reaction
Central Tunisia: The Terrain—Operation SATIN and Related Problems—The New Chain of Allied Command—Giraud Replaces Darlan—French Factionalism Persists—Rearming the French
Chapter 19: The New Situation: Axis Reaction
Revision of Axis Plans—The Axis Logistical Problem—Axis Reorganization in January—The Axis Forces—Strength and Disposition
Chapter 20: Sparring Along the Eastern Dorsal
Fighting to Keep the Initiative—The Enemy’s Attack, 18–28 January—Changes in Allied Field Command—The Enemy’s Next Moves—II Corps Plans—The Enemy Attacks Faïd Pass—The Allied Attack on Maknassy Begins—The Enemy Retains Faïd Pass—Operations Southwest of Pont-du-Fahs—II Corps Attack on Maknassy Ends—II Corps Goes on the Defensive
Chapter 21: The Enemy Strikes at U.S. II Corps
Allied Expectations—Allied Dispositions, 13 February—The Enemy’s Intentions—Axis Plans for Taking Sidi Bou Zid and Gafsa—The Battle of Sidi Bou Zid, 14 February—Allied Preparations for Counterattack—The Counterattack at Sidi Bou Zid, 15 February
Chapter 22: The Enemy Drives Back the Allied Southern Flank
The Decision to Fall Back to the West—The Axis Attack Pauses—The Axis Forces Squander a Day—The Allied Line Swings Back—The Attack on Sbeïtla Begins, 16 February—Withdrawal to Sbiba—Loss of Fériana and Thélepte
Chapter 23: Rommel’s Thrust Through Kasserine Pass
The Axis Decision of 18 February—The Allied Line in the South—The Terrain at Kasserine Pass—The Defense of Kasserine Pass, 19 February—The 21st Panzer Division Is Stopped at Sbiba, 19 February—The Loss of Kasserine Pass, 20 February—Allied Defenses in the Rear of Kasserine Pass
Chapter 24: The Enemy is Turned Back
The Enemy is Held on the Tébessa Road—Thala Narrowly Escapes Capture—The Enemy Retires Through Kasserine Pass—The New Army Groups—Balance Sheet of the February Battles
Part 6: Shift to Northern Tunisia
Chapter 25: The Allies Prepare for Decisive Action
Reorganizing the Allied Command—Ground Forces Reorganize—The New Allied Air Command—Allied Preparations in the Communications Zone—Preparations by the French
Chapter 26: The Enemy Strives to Retain the Initiative
A Major Effort in the North is Planned—The Attack on the Northern Flank—The Attack via Sidi Nsir—The Enemy Fails, South of the Medjerda—The Outcome of the 26 February Offensive—New Instructions for Army Group Africa—Axis Logistical Preparations—The Battle of Médenine—Rommel Leaves Tunisia
Chapter 27: From Mareth to Enfidaville
The Approach of the British Eighth Army—The Mareth Position—Rommel’s Analysis of the Mareth Position—The Gap Leading to El Hamma—Plans for Operation PUGILIST GALLOP—Defense Plans—The Battle on the Coastal Plain—The Shift to Operation SUPERCHARGE II—The Enemy Falls Back to the Chott Position—The Enemy is Driven to Northeastern Tunisia
Chapter 28: Gafsa, Maknassy, and El Guettar (17–25 March)
Army Group’s Plan for II Corps—The Corps Plan: Operation WOP—The Occupation of Gafsa—The Seizure of Station de Sened—The Advance Beyond Maknassy—18 Army Group Revises II Corps Mission, 22 March—Enemy Defense of Maknassy Pass, 23–25 March—The 1st Infantry Division Holds the Enemy Near El Guettar—Reinforced American Infantry Versus German Armor, 23 March
Chapter 29: II Corps Operations Beyond El Guettar
18 Army Group Again Revises the Plan for II Corps—Two Divisions East of El Guettar, 28–29 March—The Armored Attack Toward Gabés, 30 March-1 April—Tactical Air Support of II Corps—II Corps is Held, 2–6 April—The Enemy Pulls Out, 6–8 April
Chapter 30: Attacks at Fondouk El Aouareb and Pursuit Onto the Plain
The Second Attack at Fondouk el Aouareb Falters—British 6th Armoured Division Breaks Out at Fondouk el Aouareb—The Enemy Slips Past Kairouan
Part 7: Allied Drive to Victory
The Terrain of the Enemy’s Bridgehead—The Allied Plan of Attack—The Enemy’s Plans and Regrouping—Allied Regrouping
II Corps Plans—Preparations for the Attack in the North—Attack in the North Begins—II Corps Southern Attack Begins
Chapter 33: The Advance to Mateur
Hill 609—The Attack Opens—First Failure and Broadened Plans—Successful General Attack, 30 April–1 May—Approaching “The Mousetrap”—The Enemy is Forced to Withdraw, 1–3 May—The Fall of Mateur, 3 May
Chapter 34: The End in Tunisia
Plans to Take Tunis—The Liberation of Tunis—Bizerte Falls to the U.S. II Corps—U.S. II Corps Pushes Beyond Mateur—Total Surrender in the North—The Fighting Ends in the South—Allied Reorganization
French Unification—Some “Lessons Learned” by the Army—Some “Lessons Learned” by the Enemy—Allied Leadership—Strategic Consequences
Appendices
Appendix A: Allied Troop and Supply Shipments
Appendix B: Axis Troop and Supply Shipments
I. Central Europe and the Mediterranean (National Geographic Society Map)
II. Safi Landing Area
III. The Capture of Casablanca, Operations 8–11 November 1942
IV. Taking Port–Lyautey, 8–10 November 1942
V. Seizure of Oran, 8–10 November 1942
VI. Tunisian Battleground
VII. Tebourba Engagement
VIII. German Attack on Medjez el Bab, 6–10 December 1942
IX. Battles at Kasserine Pass and Sbiba Gap, 19–22 February 1943
X. Mareth and Chott Positions, 16 March–6 April 1943
XI. Operations of II Corps in Southern Tunisia, 16–23 March 1943
XII. II Corps Operations in Northern Tunisia, 23 April–3 May 1943
XIII. Battle for Hill 609 (Djebel Tahent), 27 April–1 May 1943
Inline Maps
1. Lines of Communication in French North Africa
2. Advance from Safi, 9–11 November 1942
3. Landings at Algiers, 8 November 1942
4. First Actions in Tunisia, 16–23 November 1942
5. First Allied Drive on Tunis, 25–30 November 1942
6. Situation in Northern Tunisia, 16 December 1942
7. Battle for Longstop Hill, 22–26 December 1942
8. Battle for the Eastern Dorsal Passes, 18–25 January 1943
9. Faïd–Maknassy Actions, 30 January-3 February 1943
10. The Dorsal Positions in Central Tunisia, 13–18 February 1943
11. Battle of Sidi Bou Zid, 14–15 February 1943
12. Engagement at Sbeïtla, 16–17 February 1943
13. Situation in Tunisia, 26 February 1943
14. German Offensive in Northern Tunisia, 26 February–15 March 1943
15. Battle of Médenine, 6 March 1943
16. Actions Near El Guettar, 28 March–1 April 1943
17. First Attack on Fondouk, 27 March 1943
18. Battle for Fondouk Gap, 8–9 April 1943
19. Attacks on Axis Bridgehead, 19 April–1 May 1943
20. II Corps Routes, April 1943
21. Victory in Tunisia, 3–13 May 1943
Tables
1. Personnel and Vehicles Assigned to Force “X” (BLACKSTONE), as of 22 October 1942
2. Personnel and Vehicles Assigned to Force “Y” (BRUSHWOOD), as of 22 October 1942
3. Personnel and Vehicles Assigned to Force “Z” (GOALPOST), as of 22 October 1942
4. Battle Casualties Sustained by the Allied Forces in the Algerian-French Moroccan Campaign, 8–11 November 1942
5. Battle Casualties Sustained by the Allied Forces in the Tunisian Campaign, 12 November 1942–13 May 1943
6. Strength and Supplies of Allied Assault Forces in the Invasion of North Africa, 8 November 1942
7. Strength of Allied Forces Landed in North Africa as of 1 December 1942
8. Strength of U.S. Army in North Africa, November 1942–April 1943
9. German Supply Shipments Received in North Africa, November 1942–May 1943
10. German Losses in Sea Transport to North Africa, November 1942–May 1943
11. Axis Troops Transported to North Africa, November 1942–May 1943
Charts
1. AFHQ Organization, 1 November 1942
2. Allied Command Relationships in the Mediterranean, March 1943
Illustrations
U.S. Rangers Training in Scotland—Maj. Gen. George S. Patton, Jr., Aboard the USS Augusta—Gibraltar—En Route to North Africa—Landing Craft Circling Near a Troop Transport—Safi Harbor—La Railleuse, Pointe De La Tour—Fire Control Tower—Navy Fighter Planes from the USS Santee—Seatrain Lakehurst—Cap De Fedala—Casablanca—Transports of the Center Attack Group—Beach RED 3, Fedala—The Wadi Nefifikh and Beach BLUE 2—Light Tank M5 Near Fedala—Assembly Area, Afternoon of D Plus 1—Entrance to the Port of Fedala—Port-Lyautey, Airdrome—Path of the Raider Detachment Aboard the Dallas—Aircraft Carrier Chenango—Arriving at Fedala to Negotiate an Armistice—Lt. Gen. Dwight D. Eisenhower at Gibraltar—Oran—X WHITE Beach on the Bay of Mersa Bou Zedjar—Y Beaches, Les Andalouses—Y WHITE Beach, Les Andalouses—Troops and Equipment Coming Ashore, Z WHITE Beach—The “Maracaibo” HMS Misoa—French Prisoners—Maj. Gen. Lloyd R. Fredendall—Algiers—U.S. Troops Landing Near Surcouf—Maj. Gen. Charles S. Ryder—General Eisenhower with Adm. Jean François Darlan—Allied Leaders in Algiers—Sbeïtla—Crew of a General Grant Tank—German Mark IV Medium Tank—Djedeïda—German Mark VI Tiger Tank—The German 88-mm. Flak Guns—El Bathan—Casablanca Conference—German SIEBEL Ferry—Lt. Gen. K. A. N. Anderson—37-mm. Antitank Gun (M3A1) and Crew—Faïd Pass—Sidi Bou Zid—Spahis Withdrawing from the Sidi Bou Zid Area—Field Marshal Rommel—Terrain at Kasserine Pass—105-mm. Howitzer of the 33rd Field Artillery Battalion—General Grant Medium Tank M3—Men of the 894th Tank Destroyer Battalion—Maj. Gen. Orlando Ward—Maj. Gen. Terry Allen—Crew of Half-Track—The Railroad Station at Kasserine Village—Marching Through Kasserine Pass—German Medium Tank Mark IV—Lt. Gen. George S. Patton, Jr.—Unloading P–38 Fighter Planes—Field Marshal Albert Kesselring—Sherman Tank with “Scorpion” Attachment—Railroad Station at Maknassy—Brig. Gen. Paul M. Robinett—Infantrymen Near El Guettar—U.S. Armor Near El Guettar—Loading a 155-mm. Howitzer—Maj. Gen. Manton S. Eddy—Maj. Gen. Ernest N. Harmon—Djebel Ain El Rhorab—Maj. Gen. Omar N. Bradley—Djefna Area—Pack Animal Bringing Supplies—Hill 609—Hill Complex in Sidi Nsir Area—Hill 609 Area—Troops Moving to a New Position Near Hill 609—Mateur—1st Armored Division Tank—Gen. Alphonse Juin—Bizerte—Troops of 60th Infantry—Tanks and Infantrymen in Bizerte—Gen. Jürgen Von Arnim—Aerial View of Enemy Prisoners Near Mateur—Allied Leaders in Tunis, May 1943
The illustrations on pages 197 and 245 are from the Imperial War Museum, London; the illustration on page 383 is from Service Cinèma des Armées; the one on page 502 is a captured German photograph. All other illustrations are from the files of the Department of Defense.
United States Army in World War II
Kent Roberts Greenfield, General Editor
Advisory Committee(As of 15 March 1957)
Elmer Ellis, University of Missouri
Maj. Gen. Oliver P. Newman, U.S. Continental Army Command
Samuel Flagg Bemis, Yale University
Brig. Gen. Edgar C. Doleman, Army War College
Gordon A. Craig, Princeton University
Brig. Gen. William F. Train, Command and General Staff College
Oron J. Hale, University of Virginia
Maj. Gen. Robert P. Hollis, Industrial College of the Armed Forces
W. Stull Holt, University of Washington
Col. Vincent J. Esposito, United States Military Academy
T. Harry Williams, Louisiana State University
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